Delete arithmetic_analysis/ directory and relocate its contents

[tianyizheng02]

Describe your change:

Fixes #8863

Deleted the arithmetic_analysis/ directory and relocated its files because the purpose of the directory was always ill-defined. "Arithmetic analysis" isn't a known field of math, and the directory's files contained algorithms for linear algebra, numerical analysis, and even physics.

Relocated the directory's linear algebra algorithms to linear_algebra/, its numerical analysis algorithms to a new subdirectory called maths/numerical_analysis/, and its single physics algorithm to physics/. Doing this revealed multiple duplicate algorithms that will need to be consolidated/deleted in future PRs.

Incidentally, I also had to fix #8863 in this PR by removing all instances of eval from arithmetic_analysis/newton_raphson.py because ruff wouldn't let me commit my changes otherwise.

• Add an algorithm?
• Fix a bug or typo in an existing algorithm?
• Add or change doctests? -- Note: Please avoid changing both code and tests in a single pull request.
• Documentation change?

Checklist:

• I have read CONTRIBUTING.md.
• This pull request is all my own work -- I have not plagiarized.
• I know that pull requests will not be merged if they fail the automated tests.
• This PR only changes one algorithm file. To ease review, please open separate PRs for separate algorithms.
• All new Python files are placed inside an existing directory.
• All filenames are in all lowercase characters with no spaces or dashes.
• All functions and variable names follow Python naming conventions.
• All function parameters and return values are annotated with Python type hints.
• All functions have doctests that pass the automated testing.
• All new algorithms include at least one URL that points to Wikipedia or another similar explanation.
• If this pull request resolves one or more open issues then the description above includes the issue number(s) with a closing keyword: "Fixes #ISSUE-NUMBER".